英語短文翻譯篇一：英文短文翻譯

11The key problem here lies in the causality

12Those who made a fuss said that they have confirmed that violence on the media causes aggressive behavior. 13But the assumption in their study need to be tested.

14When we list game as violence or nonviolence, whether the scene a hero eat ghost can be referred to violence? 15When experimenter record the time which game player spent on reading a list of the “aggressive” or “non-aggressive” , can we be sure that they are weighing?

16In order to compare the method, ideas and conclusion of the media violence’s research, the new Harvard Media and Child Health collected these media violence, and made it standardized, their intention was an important step in the right direction.

17Another appropriate method should be desalinizing criticism before we know more.

18Many researchers have done a lot of writing , communication and validation on the threat caused by media violence

19Of course , it’s their privilege.

20But when do this now, they often announced the problem has been solved, thus incurred criticism from colleagues. 21In response to these criticisms, those who are alarmist accused of these critics and journalists to be deceived by the entertainment

industry.

22Such a conflict is not helpful to the scientific research and the society.

英語短文翻譯篇二：短文翻譯

1中國新年是中國最重要的傳統(tǒng)節(jié)日，在中國也被稱為春節(jié)。新年的慶祝活動 從除夕開始一直延續(xù)到元宵節(jié)（the Lantern Festival），即從農歷（lunar calendar） 最后一個月的最后一天至新年第一個月的第十五天。各地歡度春節(jié)的習俗和傳統(tǒng) 有很大差異，但通常每個家庭都會在除夕夜團聚，一起吃年夜飯。為驅厄運、迎 好運，家家戶戶都會進行大掃除。人們還會在門上粘貼紅色的對聯(lián)（couplets）， 對聯(lián)的主題為健康、發(fā)財和好運。其他的活動還有放鞭炮、發(fā)紅包和探親訪友等。

Chinese New Year is the most important traditional Chinese holiday. In China, it is also knownas the Spring Festival. New Year celebrations run from Chinese New Year's Eve, the last day ofthe last month of the lunar calendar, to the Lantern Festival on the 15th day of the firstmonth. Customs and traditions concerning the celebration of the Chinese New Year vary widelyfrom place to place. However, New Year's Eve is usually an occasion for Chinese families togather for the annual reunion dinner. It is also traditional for every family to thoroughly cleanthe house in order to sweep away ill fortune and to bring in good luck. And doors will bedecorated with red couplets with themes of health, wealth and good luck. Other activitiesinclude lighting firecrackers, giving money in red envelopes, and visiting relatives and friends.

2中醫(yī)(Traditional Chinese Medicine)是中華文化不可分割的一部分，為振興華夏做出了巨大的貢獻。如今， 中醫(yī)和西醫(yī)(western medicine)在中國的醫(yī)療保健領域并駕齊驅。中醫(yī)以其獨特的診斷手法、系統(tǒng)的治療方式 和豐富的典籍材料，備受世界矚目。中國的中醫(yī)事業(yè)由國家中醫(yī)藥管理局（State Administration of TCM and Pharmacology)負責。現在國家巳經出臺了管理中醫(yī)的政策、法令和法規(guī)，引導并促進這個新興產業(yè)的研究和 開發(fā)。在定義上，中醫(yī)是指導中國傳統(tǒng)醫(yī)藥理論和實踐的一種醫(yī)學，它包括中醫(yī)療法、中草藥(herbalogy)、針 灸(acupuncture )、推拿(massage)和氣功(Qigong)。

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is an integral part of Chinese culture. It has made greatcontributions to the prosperity of China. Today both TCM and western medicine are being usedin providing medical and health services in China. TCM, with its unique diagnostic methods,systematic approach, abundant historical literature and materials, has attracted a lot ofattention from the international community. In China, TCM is under the administration ofState Administration of TCM and Pharmacology. National strategies, laws and regulationsgoverning TCM are now in place to guide and promote the research and development in thispromising industry. TCM is defined as a medical science governing the theory and practice oftraditional Chinese medicine. It includes Chinese medication, herbalogy, acupuncture, massageand Qigong.

3中歐經濟貿易合作取得了可喜的成果。歐盟巳經成為中國的重要經貿伙伴，是中國最大的技術供應方、 第三大貿易伙伴和第五大實際投資方。2001年，中歐貿易達到766億美元，比上一年增長11%，尤其是中國從 歐盟的進口增長了 15.8%。我非常贊賞歐中貿協(xié)（Europe-China Business Association)與比中經貿理事會 (Belgium-Chinese Economic and CommercialCouncil)為發(fā)展中歐關系所做出的努力。中歐經濟貿易合作具有廣 闊的前景。中歐經濟具有很強的互補性，在貿易、投資、科技等領域具有很大的合作潛力。

China-EU economic and trade cooperation has yielded heartening fruits. The EU has nowbecome an important economic and trade partner of China, working as the largest technologysupplier, the third largest trading partner and the fifth largest actual investor in China.Bilateral trade reached 76.6 billion dollars in 2001, achieving an 11% increase compared to theprevious year. In particular, China?s imports from the EU grew by 15.8%. I highly appreciatethe efforts by the Europe-China Business Association and the Belgium-Chinese Economic andCommercial Council for developing China-EU ties. China-EU trade and economic cooperation isendowed with a promising future. The two economies are strongly

complimentary to eachother and hence enjoy huge potential for cooperation in trade, investment, science andtechnology areas

4要了解中國文化，就應該對中國的戲曲文化有所了解。中國地方戲種類很多，其中京劇是一個具有代表 性的劇種。作為一個獨立的劇種，京劇的誕生大約是在1840年至I860年。京劇是在吸收其他地方戲營養(yǎng)的基礎 上形成的。京劇有明確的角色分工；在念白上用北京方言；在音樂上以胡琴為主要伴奏樂器。由于京劇是在融 合各種地方戲之精華的基礎上形成的，所以它不僅為北京的觀眾所鐘愛，也受到全國人民的喜愛。

參考答案

To understand the Chinese culture, you have to know something about the Chinese operaculture. In China, there are many kinds of local operas, among which Peking Opera is arepresentative one. As an independent opera form, Peking Opera was approximately bornbetween 1840 and I860. Peking opera originated from absorbing the essentials of other localoperas. In Peking Opera there is a clear division of roles; the spoken parts are in Beijing dialect;and huqin, is the main accompaniment instrument. Since Peking Opera has combined thecream of various local operas, it is enjoyed not only by Beijing audience, but also by people allover the country.

5北京有無數的胡同(hutong)。平民百姓在胡同里的生活給古都北京帶來了無窮的魅力。北京的胡同不僅僅 是平民百姓的生活環(huán)境，而且還是一門建筑藝術。通常，胡同內有一個大雜院，房間夠4到10個家庭的差不多20 口人住。所以，胡同里的生活充滿了友善和人情味。如今，隨著社會和經濟的飛速發(fā)展，很多胡同被新的高樓大 廈所取代。但愿胡同可以保留下來。

參考答案

In Beijing, there are numerous hutongs. The life of common people in hutongs brings endlesscharm to the ancient capital, Beijing. The hutong in Beijing is not only the living environmentof common people but also a kind of architecture. Usually, there is a courtyard complex insidehutong, with rooms shared by 4 to 10 families of about 20 people. Therefore, life in hutongs isfull of friendliness and genuine humanity. Nowadays, with rapid social and economicdevelopment, many hutongs are replaced by new tall buildings. I hope hutongs can bepreserved.

參考答案

China is the largest developing country in the world and its population accounts for about 22percent of the world?s total. For a long period of its history, China has been plagued bypoverty for various reasons. In the mid-1980s, the economy of an overwhelming majority ofthe rural areas in China grew dramatically by virtue of their own advantages, but a smallnumber of areas still lagged behind because of the constraints of their economic, social,historical, and natural conditions. The Chinese government, while working on all-round economicand social development, has nationwide implemented a large-scale program for development-oriented poverty relief in a planned and organized way. With the main objective of helpingpoverty-stricken people solve the food and clothing problems, this program has gone a longway toward alleviating poverty.

6東方的文明的最大特色是知足。西洋的近代文明的最大特色是不知足。知足的東方人自安于簡陋的生活，故不求物質享受的提高；自安于愚昧，自安于“不識不知”，故不注意真理的發(fā)現與技藝器械的發(fā)明；自安于現成的環(huán)境與命運，故不想征服自然。西方人大不然。他們說“不知足是神圣的”。物質上的不知足產生了今日鋼鐵世界，蒸汽機世界，電力世界。理智上的不知足產生了今日的科學世界。社會政治制度上的不知足產生了今日的民權世界。神圣的不知足是一切革新一切進化的動力。

參考翻譯

The most significant feature of eastern civilization iscontentment while the modern western civilizationdiscontent.It is Orientals,who are content with theirsimple life,not after improvement of material lif;whoare satisfied with ignorance,pay no attention to the discovery of truth and the invention ofequipments;who are self-content with their existing environment and destiny,have no desireto conquer the nature.Westerners are quite different.They say “Divine discontent”.Materialdiscontent leads to today's world of steel,of automobile,and of electricity.Mental discontentcontributes to today's world of science.Socio-political discontent gives rise to today's world ofpublic rights.Divine discontent is the driver of all renovation and evolution.

7有人說作為詩人的徐志摩是一個孩子。那是一個聰明伶俐的孩子，但這個孩子永遠也長不大。他對周圍的一切懷有難以滿足的無窮的好奇，不分辨是清醒的還是夢幻之中的世界。他不懂得去憎恨任何人，也不相信任何人真的會喜歡他。人生的經歷并沒有置他于不顧，卻也未能使他改變。他與人(來自:smilezhuce.com 蒲公 英文 摘:英語短文翻譯)間事物游戲，像孩子游戲手中的玩具。當然啦，志摩也只有自己的煩惱，或者說也有煩惱的時候。

Some people say that Hsu Tse-mo,the poet,is achild,a clever child.He can never grow old,and has aninsatiable curiosity about all around him.He can'tdistinguish between the world of wake and theworld of dream.What's more,he doesn't hateanyone,and doubts that if anyone really likes him.Although he has experienced so much inlife,those experiences fail to change him.He plays with the things of life,just like a child playingwith his toys.To be sure,he also has his own sorrows.To put it in another way,he also has timeof worries.

8一朵雪花的體態(tài)是輕盈的，宛如六枚小銀針，千針萬線，給南開大學校園繡出了合身的水晶外套。但是，正如童話世界也有缺陷一樣，文史樓北墻邊一株年輕的龍柏（cypress），由于一夜風雪吹壓，已經傾側成30度斜角了。

遠處走來幾個身背照相機的年輕人。其中那位穿黑呢大衣的姑娘真美，一雙亮晶晶杏核兒大眼，似湖？似星？誰也說不清，只惹得路人不時側目朝她張望。這群市大學生攝影協(xié)會會員準備捕捉大自然恩賜的美妙鏡頭，心情舒暢地說笑著，漸漸地走近這棵傾斜的龍柏。

Snowflakes are light, each having six tiny silverneedles.Like thousands of needles and threads,theyworked together to weave a well-fitted caystal outfitfor the campus of Nankai University.However,nothing is perfect, not even in a fairyland. The youngdragon cypress at the north wall of the Literature and History Building was bent over at a 30degree angle after the night's snowstorm.

Several students carne from a distance, each carrying a camera. Among them was a girl in ablack wool overcoat was a real beauty.Her almond-shaped eyes are like pools of clear water orbright stars in the sky,which was hard to tell. But she herself was certainly eye-catching!Thesemembers of College Photographers Association of the city had come out to capture thebeautiful scenery endowed by nature. Laughing and talking merrily, they were approaching theleaning cypress.

9請將下面這段話翻譯成英文：

眾所周知，在中國與歐洲的經貿關系中，歐盟占有重要的地位。2008年中國與歐盟的貿易額占中國與歐洲貿易總額的77%，目前中國歐盟已互為第三大貿易伙伴。歐盟是中國產品出口的一個傳統(tǒng)市場，在我對外貿易中的比重不斷上升。與此同時，中國也成為歐盟一個重要出口市場，在其對外貿易中的比重也在上升。歐盟還一直是中國引進先進技術和設備的重要來源。中國與歐盟在先進技術，尤其是高科技產品方面的合作有助于歐盟擴大對華出口，也有利于中國企業(yè)產業(yè)升級、技術更新，符合雙方利益，具有很大的發(fā)展空間。

It is widely acknowledged that the EU occupies animportant position in terms of Sino-Europeaneconomic and trade relation.In 2008,the tradevolume between China and the EU accounted for77% of Sino-European total trade.Currently,Chinaand EU have mutually become the third largest trading partners.The EU is a traditional marketfor China's exports,the precentage of which is increasing in China's foreign trade.At the sametime,China also has become an important market for the EU's exports and its percentage is alsoincreasing in EU's foreign trade.The EU has always been an important source from which Chinaintroduces advanced technologies and equipments.The Sino-EU cooperation in the field ofadvanced technologies,especially the new and high-tech products,helps expand the EUexports to China and also helps Chinese enterprises upgrade their industries,renovate theirtechnologies.All these are in the interests of both sides and have considerable space forfurther development.

10我國政府強化了對外貿的管控，強化了商會這類中介機構的服務與協(xié)調功能。我們希望繼續(xù)加強外貿體制的改革，使之逐漸走向競爭，并受到諸如關稅，匯率和利率等法律和經濟手段的制約。所有這些都應有助于加速中國外貿的國際化進程，為宏觀經濟局面的形成創(chuàng)造一個較好的環(huán)境。通過促進商貿業(yè)，制造業(yè)，農業(yè)，技術產業(yè)和銀行之間更為密切的合作，我們能夠為國際市場提供更多，更好的出口產品。在這種情況下，中國自然會成為一個大市場。

Our government has strengthened the controlover foreign trade,and reinforced the service andcoordination functions of chambers of commerceas intermediary organizations.We hope to continueto enhance the reform of our foreign trade systemin order to gradually make it competitive and restricted by both legal means and economicmeasures,such as tariff,exchange rate and interest rate.All these should help speed up theinternationalization of China's foreign trade and create a better environment for the prospectof macro-economy and macro-trade.By promoting a closer cooperation among the industriesof business and trade,manufacture,technology and banks,we will be able to provide more andbetter export commodities for the international market.Given this situation,China will naturallybecome a large market.

11關于吃月餅這個傳統(tǒng)的來歷有兩個傳說。一個是唐朝的神話故事，說的是當時地球被10個太陽包圍著。有一天10個太陽同時出現在天空中，巨大的熱量幾乎把地球烤焦了。多虧一位名叫后羿的神箭手射下了9個太陽，地球才被保住。為了獎勵后羿，王母娘娘賜給后羿一種長生不老藥，但是王母警告他必須正當使用。然而后羿沒有理會王母娘娘的警告，他被名利沖昏了頭腦，變成了一個暴君。后羿美麗的妻子嫦娥對他的暴行再也不能袖手旁觀，于是她偷走了后羿的長生不老藥，飛到月亮上逃避后羿的狂怒。從此就有了關于月宮仙子嫦娥，這個月亮上的美麗女人的傳說。

There are two legends which claim to explain the tradition of eating mooncakes. One Tang Dynasty myth holds that the Earth once had 10 suns circling it. One day all 10 suns appeared at once, scorching the planet with their heat. It was thanks to a skillful archer named Hou Yi that the Earth was saved. He shot down all but one of the suns. As his reward, the Heavenly Queen Mother gave Hou Yi the Elixir of Immortality, but she warned him that he must use it wisely. Hou Yi ignored her advice and, corrupted by fame and fortune, became a tyrannical leader. Chang-Er, his beautiful wife, could no longer stand by and watch him abuse his power so she stole his Elixir and fled to the moon to escape his angry wrath. And thus began the legend of the beautiful woman in the moon, the Moon Fairy.

12和平穩(wěn)定是發(fā)展的前提和基礎。上個世紀，人類經歷了兩次世界大戰(zhàn)，生靈涂炭， 經濟社會發(fā)展遭受嚴重挫折。第二次世界大戰(zhàn)結束以來，世界經濟能夠快速增長，主要 得益于相對和平穩(wěn)定的國際環(huán)境。 我們應該恪守聯(lián)合國憲章宗旨和原則，充分發(fā)揮聯(lián)合國及其安理會在維護和平、締 造和平、建設和平方面的核心作用。堅持通過對話和協(xié)商，以和平方式解決國際爭端。

我們應該堅持國家不論大小、強弱、貧富都是國際社會平等一員，以民主、包容、 合作、共贏的精神實現共同安全，做到一國內部的事情一國自主辦、大家共同的事情大 家商量辦，堅定不移奉行多邊主義和國際合作，推進國際關系民主化。

Peace and stability form the prerequisite and foundation for development. The two world wars in the last century caused mankind untold sufferings and world economic and social development severe setbacks. It is mainly due to the relatively peaceful and stable international environment that the world economy has been able to grow at a fast pace in the post-war era. We should abide by the purposes and principles of the UN Charter and bring into full play the central role of the United Nations and its Security Council in peace keeping, peace making and peace building. We should seek peaceful settlement of international disputes through dialogue and consultation. All countries, big or small, strong or weak, rich or poor, are equal members of the international community. We should work for common security in a spirit of democracy, inclusiveness, cooperation and win-win progress. Internal affairs of a country should be handled independently by the country itself and international affairs should be managed collectively through consultation by all. We should be committed to multilateralism and international cooperation, and promote democracy in international relations.

13總結一年來的工作，我們清醒地看到，經濟社會發(fā)展中還存在不少問題和困難。必須堅持把人民群眾利益放在第一位。要切實維護人民群眾的經濟、政治和文化權益，著力解決關系群眾切身利益的突出問題，保障城鄉(xiāng)困難群眾的基本生活。不斷滿足人們日益增長的物質文化需要，是社會主義現代化建設的根本目的。只有執(zhí)政為民，我們的各項事業(yè)才能獲得最廣泛最可靠的群眾基礎和力量源泉。

In reviewing our work of the past year, we clearly seethat many problems and difficulties remain in oureconomic and social developmentWe must always put the interests of the people first.We must truly protect the people?s economic, political and cultural rights and interests, payparticular attention to solving acute problems affecting their vital interests, and ensure thatpoor urban and rural residents have the basic necessities of life. protect the people‘s economic, political and culturalrights and interestsThe fundamental goal of our socialist modernization drive is to continually meet the growingmaterial and cultural needs of the people.Only if we exercise power for the good of the people can we enjoy the broadest and mostreliable support from the people and draw from them the strength for accomplishing all ourundertakings.

14如果說我確實有所成就的話，那也只是因為我堅信不斷嘗試就會成功。遇到挫折時，你可以暫時把問題放一放，一味糾結不僅無濟于事，有時反倒使情況更糟。先去讀一本好書、見見久未謀面的好友或去戶外騎游一番；再回頭看待問題，你或許會感到柳暗花明。這樣做后，別忘了多加反�。骸盀槭裁催@個方法會奏效？下次能不能做得更好呢？”看你定的是什么目標，這種方法可以被反復有效應用。如果你堅定不移地持續(xù)提升自己，最后成功肯定非你莫屬。孜孜不倦向來無敵。

The only reason I?ve managed to accomplishanything isbecause I am a firm believer incontinuous improvement.If you fail insomething, distance from the event for a day or two, because agonizing overtheproblem will not make it go away (and will make it a lot worse).Read a goodbook, catch up with some friends you haven?t seen in a long time, or go onanature hike. You will be able to look at the issue with a fresh perspective.After you have done that, ask yourself: “Why did this work out and how can Ido better nexttime?” This process very well could repeat itself several times depending on the nature of your goal,but if you keep making a firm commitment to continuously improve yourself, you will developso much that the only option left is success. Consistent hustle always wins.

15某年某月某日,氣象臺預報天氣:B 市今日晴轉陰,氣溫 27至 32℃。王老與張老兩人相約上午在郊外

英語短文翻譯篇三：專業(yè)英語短文翻譯 2

第五章

Section A Why Theories of Learning 為什么需要學習理論。

Most people have an intuitive notion of what it means to learn: They can do something that they could not do before or they know something that they did not know before. In most psychological theories, learning is defined as “a persisting change in human performance or performance potential(Driscoll, 2000, p.11), however, the major concepts and principles of learning vary with learning theories.大多數人往往憑直覺認為學習就是學會做一些以前不會做的事情�；蛘呤侵�道一些以前不知道的。大多數心理學理論將學習定義為人類能力和潛能的持續(xù)改變。然而不同的學習理論對學習的主要概念和原理有不同的看法。

Regardless of the differences among psychological perspectives on learning, a solid foundation in various learning theory is undoubtedly the most essential element in the preparation of ISD professional. They must be familiar with the theory and research on learning and must be able to apply them to actual practice. For example, a designer working on an early childhood education project will find insight into children’s behavior and the value of a rich learning environment in the work of Piaget. Ausubel and Rothkopf are valuable resources when producing textual materials. Designers familiar with social learning theory of Bandura will not ignore environmental factors that significantly affect instructional programs, nor overlook the power of informal learning channels (e.g., observational learning). Bruner’s rich philosophical insight into discovery learning and problem solving, Keller’s work on motivation, Knowles’ emphasis on factors that facilitate adult learning, and the work of others contribute to a designer’s overall understanding of the learning process and skill in designing instructional strategies. Cognitive science (Klatzky, Anderson, Gagne, Wildman & Burton) is making a major contribution to our understanding of how humans perceive, process, store, and retrieve information. Schema theory, elaboration, metacognition, automaticity, expert/novice studies, and transfer are only a few of the constructs studied by cognitive psychologists that have important implication for the design of instruction.

盡管心理學上對學習的觀點存在差異。擁有一個堅實的學習理論基礎無疑是教學系統(tǒng)設計專業(yè)人員職前培養(yǎng)中最基本的要素。教學系統(tǒng)設計人員必須熟悉關于學習的理論和研究。并將之付諸實踐。例如。一個致力于早期兒童教育項目的設計者將會借助皮亞杰的著作來研究兒童行為以及豐富學習環(huán)境的價值。奧蘇貝爾和羅斯科普夫的思想是開發(fā)文本資料的重要理論資源。熟悉班杜拉的社會學習理論的設計者不會忽視對教學計劃有很大影響的環(huán)境因素。也不會忽略非正式學習途徑(如觀察學習)的影響力。布魯納關于發(fā)現學習和問題求解的哲學思想。凱勒在學習動機方面的工作。諾爾斯對促進成人學習因素的強調。以及他人的工作都有助于設計者從大體上理解學習的過程和教學策略設計的技巧。認知科學�？死�斯基。安德森。加涅。威廉姆和伯頓。在解釋人類如何感知，加工，存儲和重和重解信息等方面作出了很大的貢獻。圖式理論。精細化。元認知。自動化。專家。新手的學習。以及遷移理論都對教學設計有重要啟示。這只是認知心理學家們眾多研究中的一小部分。

Without a broad-based foundation in learning theory, the practice of ISD becomes narrowly focused on means (the steps in the systems model) rather that on the rightful end (learning) (Schiffman, 1986, pp.137-138).倘若缺乏廣泛的學習理論基礎。教學系統(tǒng)設計實踐的焦點就會狹隘的集中在方法上(系統(tǒng)模型中的步驟)而不是恰當的學習結果上。

Section B What is Behaviorism?什么是行為主義？

Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.

給我一打健康、外形完好的嬰兒，把他們放在我設計的特殊的環(huán)境里培養(yǎng)，我敢保證，隨便挑出一個來，我就能把他訓練

成為我所選擇的任何一類專家---醫(yī)生、律師、藝術家、商業(yè)首領，甚至是乞丐或小偷，而無論他的才能、愛好、傾向、能力或他的先輩的職業(yè)和種族是什么。

Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states.行為心理學，也稱為行為主義，是一種基于所有的行為都是通過條件刺激而產生的學習理論。條件刺激就是重現與環(huán)境的相互作用。根據行為主義的觀點，可以通過系統(tǒng)方法和觀察的方式來研究人的行為，而不用考慮人的內部心理狀態(tài)。

The Rise of Behaviorism

Psychology changed dramatically during the early 20th-century as another school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominance. Behaviorism was a major change from previous theoretical perspectives, rejecting the emphasis on both the conscious and unconscious mind. Instead, behaviorism strove to make psychology a more scientific discipline by focusing purely on observable behavior.20世紀初，心理學發(fā)展成為一個學派被認為是行為主義的崛起。忽略有意識和無意識的想法是行為主義與之前的理論思想的一個重大改變。相反，行為主義完全通過專注于可視的行為來使得心理學變成更科學的學科。

Behaviorism had it's earliest start with the work of a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov's research on the digestive systems of dogs led to his discovery of the classical conditioning process, which demonstrated that behaviors could be learned via conditioned associations. Pavlov demonstrated that this learning process could be used to make an association between environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.最早從事于行為主義研究工作的是俄羅斯的生理學家巴甫洛夫。他的關于狗的消化系統(tǒng)的研究也導致了經典性條件反射過程的發(fā)現，這個發(fā)現證明了行為都能通過關聯(lián)的條件刺激來學習。巴甫洛夫還證明了這個學習過程可以用于創(chuàng)造環(huán)境刺激與本能刺激間的相關聯(lián)。

An American psychologist named John B. Watson soon became one of the strongest advocates of behaviorism. Initially outlining the basics principles of this new school of thought in his 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, Watson later went on to offer a definition in his classic book Behaviorism (1924), writing:一位名叫約翰沃森的美國心理學家很快就成為了行為主義的擁護者之一。1913年，在他的論文《從行為主義者的視角看心理學》中概括了這個新學派的基本框架與原則。之后與1924年在他的經典著作行為主義中提供了一個定義。他這樣寫：

“Behaviorism...holds that the subject matter of human psychology is the behavior of the human being. Behaviorism claims that consciousness is neither a definite nor a usable concept. The behaviorist, who has been trained always as an experimentalist, holds, further, that belief in the existence of consciousness goes back to the ancient days of superstition and magic.” The impact of behaviorism was enormous, and this school of thought continued to dominate for the next 50 years. Psychologist B.F. Skinner furthered the behaviorist perspective with his concept of operant conditioning, which demonstrated the effect of punishment and reinforcement on behavior.“行為主義??主張人類心理學的主題是人類的行為。行為主義宣稱意識既不是一個明確的,也不是一個有用的概念。行為主義者總是堅持經驗主義，而且，意識的存在問題可以追溯到古代的迷信和魔法。”行為主義這個學派在接下來的50年里產生了巨大的影響。心理學家斯金納的操作性條件反射證明了懲罰與強化對行為的影響，進一步充實了行為主義的觀點。

While behaviorism eventually lost its hold on psychology, the basic principles of behavioral psychology are still widely in use today. Therapeutic techniques such as behavior analysis, behavioral modification and token economies are often utilized to help children learn new skills、and overcome maladaptive behaviors, while conditioning is used in many situations ranging from parenting to education.盡管行為主義最終失去了它所堅持的心理學，但行為心理學的基本準則在今天仍被廣泛使用。治療技術中的行為分析、行為修正，行為矯正，在多數情況下用于從養(yǎng)育到教育的過程中幫助孩子學習新技能、克服不適應的行為。

Section C What is Cognitivism? 什么是認知主義

“Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations established through contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement（強化）, although they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a motivator. However, even while accepting such behavioristic concepts, cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information.”認知主義家指出，大多數的學習都涉及到通過接觸與重復建立確切的聯(lián)系。雖然他們強調它在提供正確性反饋方面的作用勝過它作為動力的作用，但是也承認強化的重要性。然而，盡管他們接受行為主義的某些觀點，但是認知主義家們認為學習是認知結構的獲得和重組即人們加工的和存儲信息的過程。

The Basics of Cognitivism 基本的認知主義

Cognitivists view learning as a reorganization of the cognitive structure in which individuals store information (Good & Brophy, 1990 ). According to cognitivist, knowledge occurs in internal structures called schemas . When new information comes in though the senses , it is compared with the schemas already present , and the schemas may then be combined or changed in light of the new information . Information is processed in three stages. It first enters through the senses , and, if it is important or interesting , it then goes to short-term memory , where it may be kept for 20 seconds or more . Some of this information in short-term memory may then go on long-term memory , where it is stored and from which it can be retrieved.認知主義者認為學習是個人對存儲信息與認知結構的重組。根據認知主義的觀點看，知識是重現內在結構的概念。當感知到新信息時，會與先前已存在的概念相比較，然后進行整合或者將信息作出改變。信息的加工分為三個步驟。首先，通過感知覺獲得信息，如果它重要或者有趣，就會進行至少保持20秒的短時記憶。一些短時記憶的信息可能會被檢索出來以長時記憶的形式存儲。

Cognitivists hold that meaningful information is easier to learn and information that is not meaningful to the learner, and that practicing and rehearsing information improves retention (Mergel, 1998) . It follows from this that workers who are learning the elements of a new skill will learn more easily if the new skill is meaningful or relevant to them. It also follows that the more the information about how to perform the new task is repeated , the better the worker will retain it. 認知主義堅信，對于學習者而言，學習有意義的信息比無意義的信息更容易，并且，練習和預演知識能改善記憶力。下面的例子也說明了這一點。一個工人學習要學習一種新技術的基礎，如果它有意義或者與他們相關就會相對容易。并且知道如何反復操作的信息越多

就能越好的學習它。

Section D Constructivism D部分 建構主義

Constructivism is a type of learning theory the explain human learning as an active attempt to construct meaning in the world around us . Constructiviets believe that learning is more active and self-directed than either behaviorism or cognitive theory would postulate.建構主義學習理論是這樣一種學習理論，即他認為學習是人們對周圍世界的積極的有意義的建構。建構主義認為，與行為主義和認知主義相比，學習應該是更加積極和自主的。

Constructivism divides learning into two types: accommodation and assimilation. The focus is on the individual is desire and ability to learn , and the teacher or therapist is merely there to help guide self-directed learning. 建構主義將學習分為兩種類型：順應和同化。重點在于個人的學習意愿和學習能力，并且老師或者專家僅僅幫助指導自主學習。 The basics of constructivism 基本的建構主義

Bartlett (1932) pioneered what became the constructivist approach (Good & Brophy, 1990). Constructivists believe that "learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events." "What someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind." (Jonasson, 1991). 巴特利特是倡導建構學習方法的先驅者。建構主義認為“學習者

建構事實或者至少在解釋事實時都是基于他們的感知經驗，因此，個人的知識是緣由感知經驗，心理結構和揭示事物信心的集合”“有人認為知識是建立在身體感知和社會經驗的基礎上的”

If each person has their own view about reality, then how can we as a society communicate and/or coexist? Jonassen, addressing this issue in his article Thinking Technology: Toward a Constructivist Design Model, makes the following comments: 如果每個人對現實都有他們自己的看法，那我們怎樣開展社交和和平共處呢？喬納生在他的思維技術：致建構主義設計模型一文中提及這個問題，并引發(fā)了以下的思考：

"Perhaps the most common misconception of constructivism is the inference that we each therefore construct a unique reality, that reality is only in the mind of the knower, which will doubtlessly lead to intellectual anarchy." 也許，最常見的對建構主義的誤解就是這樣一種推論，我們每個人都構建一個只存在我們自己心里的獨特的事實，就會導致思維混亂。

"A reasonable response to that criticism is the Gibsonian perspective that contends that there exists a physical world that is subject to physical laws that we all know in pretty much the same way because those physical laws are perceivable by humans in pretty much the same way." 對于這個批判的觀點，作出了合理的回應，他認為存在這樣一個物理世界，它受物理規(guī)則的制約，并且我們幾乎都能用相同的方式感知這種規(guī)則。

"Constructivism also believes that much of reality is shared through a process of social negotiation......" 建構主義也認為很多現實是通過社會協(xié)商的過程達成共享的?..

If one searches through the many philosophical and psychological theories of the past, the threads of

constructivism may be found in the writing of such people as Bruner, Ulrick, Neiser, Goodman, Kant, Kuhn, Dewey and Habermas. The most profound influence was Jean Piaget's work which was interpreted and extended by von Glasserfield (Smorgansbord, 1997). 如果一項研究要經歷許多過去的哲學和心理學理論，那么，在康德,庫恩,杜威等人的書中都曾寫到建構主義。影響最長遠的還是德國格拉斯菲爾德翻譯的的讓.皮亞杰的作品。

Section A Gagne’s Theory of Instruction加涅的教學理論

Although many learning theorists may be interested in what their work means for instruction, the explanation of learning is their primary concern. Robert M. Gagne, by contrast, was concerned primarily with instruction and how what was known about learning can be systematically related to the design of instruction. He proposed and integrated and comprehensive theory of instruction that is based primarily on two foundations: cognitive information processing theory and Gagne’s own observations of effective teaching in the classroom.盡管很多學習理論家可能會對他們研究工作的教學意義感興趣。但他們最關心的還是對學習的解釋。相反。羅伯特加涅主要關心的是教學以及如何將已知的有關學習的理論與教學設計系統(tǒng)化的聯(lián)系起來。它基于認知信息加工理論和自己在課堂上對有效教學的觀察提出一整套綜合性的教學理論。

As it evolved, then, Gagne’s theory of instruction came to comprise three components:

(1) a taxonomy of learning outcomes that defined the types of capabilities humans can learn;

(2) internal and external learning conditions associated with the acquisition of each category of learning

outcome;

(3) nine events of instruction that each facilitates a specific cognitive process during learning.隨著理

論的不斷完善。加涅的教學理論逐漸發(fā)展為三部分內容:一、定義人類學習能力類型的學習結果分類理論；二、

與所習得各種類型學習結果相關的內部和外部學習條件理論；

三、在學習中促進具體認知過程的九段教學法；

Taxonomies of learning existed before and since Gagne’s formulation of his, but none besides his includes all three domains in which individuals were presumed to learn: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. According to Gagne (1972, 1985; Gagne & Medsker, 1996), there are five major categories of learning:學習分類在加略理論的興城之前就已存在，但是包括加略學習結果分類理論在內，都未完全包含個體應學習內容的三個域：認知、情感和精神運動。根據加略理

論（1972,1985：加略和梅德斯克，1996），認為有一下五種主要的學習分類：

(1) verbal information, that is , knowing “that” or “what”;

(2) intellectual skills, that is, applying knowledge;

(3) cognitive strategies, that is, employing effective ways of thinking and learning;

(4) attitudes, that is, feelings and beliefs that govern choices of personal action;

(5) motor skills, that is, executing precisely, smoothly and accurately timed movements.

（1）言語信息，即知道是“那個”或“什么”； （2）智慧技能，也就是應用知識；（3）認知策略，也就是使用有效的思考和學習方式；（4）態(tài)度，也就是掌控個人行為選擇的感覺和信念；（5）動作技能，也就是能再限制的時間內準確、熟練、精確地運動。

The reason for defining different categories of learning outcomes stems from the assumption that they must all require different conditions for learning. For example, learning to ride a bicycle(a motor skill) is different in fundamental ways from learning to solve scientific problems(intellectual skill).之所以根據不同學習結果來定義不同的學習類型，是因為不同類型的學習需要不同的學習條件。列如，學習騎自行車（一種動作技能）與學習乘法表（言語信息）在方式上是有本質區(qū)別的，與學習解決科學問題（智慧技能）的基本方式也大不相同。

In addition to conditions of learning that are unique to each leaning outcome, there are conditions of learning which facilitate the process of learning in general. Gagne conceived of the nine events of instruction as learning conditions to support internal processed such as attention, encoding, and retrieval. The events of instruction are presented briefly below:

除了每一種學習結果所需要的獨特學習條件之外，學習條件還包括可以促進學習過程的一般條件。加略給出了九段教學法，作為支持注意力、編碼和知識提取等內部學習過程的學習條件。該教學法簡述如下：

1.gaining attention: a stimulus change to alert the leaner and focus attention on desired features.

2.Informing the learner of the objective:a statement or demonstration to form an expectancy in the learner as to the goals of instruction.

3.stimulating recall of prior learning： a question or activity to remind the learner of prerequisite knowledge.

4.Presenting the stimulus:an activity or information that presents the content of what is to be learned.

5.Providing learning guidance: a cue or strategy to promote encoding.

6.Eliciting performance:an opportunity to practice or otherwise perform what is being learned.

7.Providing feedback:information of a corrective nature that will help leaners to improve their performance.

8.Assessing performance：an opportunity to demonstrate what has been learned.

9.Enhancing retention and transfer;examples or activities that prompt the learner to go beyond the immediate context of instruction. 1.引起注意：刺激性變化引起學習者的注意力，使其集中精力與所期望的特征。2.明確學習目標：通過描述或展示使學習者形成對教學目標的期望。3.刺激回憶先前的學習：設計問題或活動使學習者想以前所學知識。4.呈現刺激：用活動或信息來呈現即將學習的內容。5.提供學習指導：促進編碼的線索或策略。6.引導作業(yè)：提供實踐活動的機會或執(zhí)行所學內容。7.提供反饋：正確的信息反饋將會幫助學習者提升績效。8.評估作業(yè)：提供平價所學知識的機會。9.促進保持和遷移:提供案例或活動以促進學習對當前教學知識進行遷移。

The application of Gagne’s theory is often a highly analysis affair，and it is therefore possible to lose sight of the overall context for learning while all the details of instruction.As a means of helping instructional designers integrate multiple goals into instruction. 加略教學理論的應用往往是一件需要精確分析的事情，因而在處理教學細節(jié)的 過程中難免會忽視在整體上把握學習鏡脈。作為幫助教學設計的工具，教學設計者可以將許多目標整合到教學中。

Section B Bloom' s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives①布魯姆的教育目標分類法

At the present time, it is sufficient to state that instructional objectives are concrete

statements of the goals toward which instruction is directed. They play an important role

in the process of learning and instruction. 目前,它足以狀態(tài),教學目標是具體目標的陳述為指導指導。他們中起重要作

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